C'hios : diforc'h etre ar stummoù

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Linenn 2:
[[Skeudenn:Chios_NASA_satellite_image.jpg|thumb|right|290px|Enez C'hios gwelet eus an oabl]]
 
'''C'hios''' (Χίος e [[gresianeg|gregach]]; [[LFE|distaget]]: [ˈçio̞s]) zo un enezenn eus [[Hellaz]], er [[Mor Enezek]], 7 km e-maez da aod [[Turki]].
 
 
Linenn 8:
=== Ragistor ===
Furchadegoù e C'hios o deus diskouezet e oa tud o chom eno adalek [[Nevezoadvezh ar Maen]] da vihanañ. Mougevioù a oa annezet e Hagios Galas, en hanternoz, hag ur vered en Emporeio er c'hreisteiz. Pegen pouezus avat e oant a zo diaes da lavarout. Etre 1952 ha 1955 e voe furchet Emporeio. <ref>Boardman, John ''Excavations in Chios, 1952–1955: Greek Emporio'' (London : British School of Archaeology at Athens; Thames and Hudson, 1967), cf. ivez Hood, Sinclair ''Excavations in Chios, 1938–1955: prehistoric Emporio and Ayio Gala'' (London : British School of Archaeology at Athens: Thames and Hudson, 1981-) ISBN 0-500-96017-8</ref>
 
<!--The Greek Archaeological Service (G.A.S.) has been excavating periodically on Chios since 1970, though much of their work on the island remains unpublished.
 
The noticeable uniformity in the size of houses at Emporeio is what primarily drives scholar's theory that there may have been no serious [[Acephalous Society|social distinction]] during the Neolithic on the island, the inhabitants instead all benefiting from agricultural and livestock farming.<ref>Merouses, Nikos ''Chios. Physiko periballon & katoikese apo te neolithike epoche mechri to telos tes archaiothtas. (Chios. Natural Environment & Habitation from the Neolithic Age to the end of Antiquity)'' pg. 80. Papyros, 2002</ref>
 
It is also widely held by scholars that the island was not occupied by humans during the [[Middle Bronze Age]] (2300–1600), though researchers have suggested recently that the lack of evidence that exists during this period may only demonstrate the lack of excavations on Chios and the northern [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]].<ref>Merouses 2002 ch. 4</ref>
 
By at least the eleventh century BC the island was ruled by a kingdom/chiefdom, and the subsequent transition to aristocratic (or possibly tyrannic) rule occurred sometime over the next four centuries. Future excavations may reveal more information about this period.<ref>Merouses 2002 ch. 5, sect. 1</ref>
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=== Marevezh klasel ===
 
<!--[[Pherecydes of Leros|Pherecydes]], native to the Aegean, wrote that the island was occupied by the [[Leleges]],<ref>[[Strabo]] 14.1.3</ref> aboriginal Greeks themselves reported to be subject to the [[Minoans]] on [[Crete]].<ref>[[Herodotos]] 1.171</ref> They were eventually driven out by invading [[Ionians]].-->
 
Unan eus an 12 keoded ar [[C'hevre Ionian]] e oa C'hios. A-benn fin ar VIIvet kantved kent JK e oa ar geoded kentañ oc'h ober pezhioù moneiz, gant ar sfinks da arouez, e-pad 900 bloaz. Etre ar Vvet ha IVvet kantved e oa kresket ar boblañs betek 120,000 den, da lavarout eo tost da deir gwech kement hag e 2005.
 
 
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and based on the huge necropoli at the main city of Chios, the asty, it is thought the majority lived in that area.<ref>Merouses 2002 ch. 5, sect. 3</ref> Now a powerful Greek city-state, Chios was the last member of the [[Delian League]] to revolt.
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=== Marevezh Hellenadek ===
Linenn 33 ⟶ 17:
Un tamm a-raok marevezh mestroni [[Makedonia]] war keodedoù Hellaz e oa ur skol [[retorik]] e C'hios, digoret gant [[Isokrates]] ,<ref>[[Cicero]], ''[[De Oratore]]'', 2, 13.22</ref>
 
<!--as well as a faction aligned with [[Sparta]]. After the [[Battle of Leuctra]], supporters of the [[Lacedaemonia]]ns were exiled. Among the exiled were [[Damasistratus]] and his son [[Theopompus]], who had received instruction from the school and went on to study with Isocrates in Athens before becoming a historian.
[[Image:Modern Chios sphinx.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Reproduction of Chios Sphinx emblem.]]
 
Theopompus moved back to Chios with the other exiles in 333 BC after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] had invaded [[Asia Minor]] and decreed their return,<ref>A translation of the decree can be viewed online. [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t75.html]</ref> as well as the exile or trial of [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] supporters on the island. Theopompus was exiled again sometime after Alexander's death and took refuge in Egypt.<ref>Anthon, Charles ''A Manual of Greek Literature'', p.251, 1853. [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/greek-lit/index.html]</ref>
During this period, the island also had become the largest exporter of Greek wine, which was noted for being of relative high quality (see ''[[Chian wine]]''). Chian [[amphoras]], with a characteristic sphinx emblem and bunches of grape have been found in nearly every country that the ancient Greeks traded with from as far away as [[Gaul]], [[Upper Egypt]] and Eastern [[Russia]].<ref> Hugh Johnson, ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'' pg 41. Simon and Schuster 1989 </ref>
 
===Roman Period===
During the [[Third Macedonian War]], thirty-five vessels allied to Rome, carrying about 1,000 [[Galatia]]n troops, as well as a number of horses, were sent by [[Eumenes II]] to his brother [[Attalus II Philadelphus|Attalus]].
 
Leaving from Elaea, they were headed to Phanae, planning to disembark from there to Macedonia. However, [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]]'s naval commander Antenor intercepted the fleet between [[Erythrae]] (on the Western coast of Turkey) and Chios.
 
According to [[Livy]],<ref>[[Livy]], 44.28</ref> they were caught completely off-guard by Antenor. Eumenes' officers at first thought the intercepting fleet were friendly Romans, but scattered upon realizing they were facing an attack by their Macedonian enemy, some choosing to abandon ship and swim to Erythrae. Others, crashing their ships into land on Chios, fled toward the city.
 
The Chians however closed their gates, startled at the calamity. And the Macedonians, who had docked closer to the city anyway, cut the rest of the fleet off outside the city gates, and on the road leading to the city. Of the 1,000 men, 800 were killed, 200 taken prisoner.'
 
After the Roman conquest Chios became part of the province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]].
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=== Krennamzer ===
[[Skeudenn:Eugène_Delacroix_-_Le_Massacre_de_Scio.jpg|200px|thumb|Lazhadeg C'hios, hervez [[Eugène Delacroix]] [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]], [[Pariz]]).]]
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After the permanent division of the [[Roman Empire]] in 395 AD, Chios was for six centuries under the rule of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. This came to an end when the island was briefly held (1090–97) by Çaka Bey, a Turkish emir in the region is Smyrna during the first expansion of the Turks to the Aegean coast. However, the Turks were driven back from the Aegean coast by the [[First Crusade]], and the island reverted to Byzantine rule.
 
This relative stability was ended by the sacking of Constantinople during the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204) and during the turmoil of the 13th century the island ownership was constantly affected by the regional power struggles.
 
After the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine empire was divided up by the [[Latin Empire|Latin emperors of Constantinople]], with Chios nominally becoming a possession of the [[Republic of Venice]]. However, defeats for the Latin empire resulted in the island reverting to Byzantine rule in 1225. The Byzantine rulers had little influence and through the treaty of Nymphaeum, authority was ceded to the Genoa (1261).<ref>William Miller, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0075-4269%281911%2931%3C42%3ATZOPAC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage "The Zaccaria of Phocaea and Chios. (1275–1329.)"]
''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'', Vol. 31, 1911 (1911), pp. 42–55; doi:10.2307/624735.</ref> At this time the island was frequently attacked by pirates and by 1302–1303 was a target for the renewed Turkish fleets. To prevent Turkish expansion, the island was reconquered and kept as a renewable concession, at the behest of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II, by the Genovese [[Benedetto I Zaccaria]] (1304), then admiral to Philip of France. Zaccaria installed himself as ruler of the island, in the short-lived [[Lordship of Chios]]. His rule was benign and effective rule remained in the hands of the local Greek landowners. Beneto Zacharia was followed by his nephew ([[Benedetto II Zaccaria|Benedetto II]]) and then son ([[Martino Zaccaria|Martino]]). They attempted to turn the island towards the Latin and Papal powers, and away from the predominant Byzantine influence. The locals, still loyal to the Byzantine Empire, responded to a letter from the emperor and, despite a standing army of a thousand infantrymen, a hundred cavalrymen and two galleys, expelled the Zacharia family from the island (1329) and dissolved the fiefdom.<ref>Arbel, Benjamin, Bernard Hamilton, and David Jacob. ''Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204''. ISBN 0-7146-3372-0.</ref>
 
Local rule was brief. In 1346, a Chartered company or [[Maona]] (the "[[Maona di Chio e di Focea]]") was set up in [[Genoa]] to reconquer and exploit Chios and the neighbouring town of [[Phocaea]] in Asia Minor. Although the islanders firmly rejected an initial offer of protection, the island was invaded by a Genoese Fleet, lead by Simone Vignoso, and the castle besieged. Again rule was transferred peacefully, as on 12 September the castle was surrendered and a treaty signed with no loss of privileges to the local landowners as long as the new authority was accepted.
 
The [[Genoa|Genoese]], being interested in profit rather than conquest, controlled the trade-posts and warehouses, in particular the trade of [[mastic]], alum, salt and pitch. Other trades such as grain, wine oil and cloth and most professions were run jointly with the locals. After a failed uprising in 1347, and being heavily outnumbered (less that 10% of the population in 1395), the Latins maintained light control over the local population, remaining largely in the town and allowing full religious freedom. In this way the island remained under Genoese control for two centuries.
 
By the early 15th century, Asia Minor and the surrounding islands had fallen under Ottoman rule, however the Genoese families managed to maintain control over the island through the payment of a tribute to the Sultan. By the 16th century, as Genoese power waned, trade with Genoa had decreased and the local rulers become assimilated into the local population. This largely independent rule continued until 1566, when, with tensions rising, the Sultan decided that the island could potentially be used as a base for Western attacks on Constantinople. The island was invaded by Ottoman troops and absorbed without a battle into the [[Ottoman Empire]].
 
As well as the Latin and Turkish influx, documents record a small Jewish population from at least 1049 AD.<ref>[http://www.sephardicstudies.org/chios.html The Sephardic Community of Chios
 
 
</ref> The original Greek ([[Romaniotes|Romaniote]]) Jews, thought to have been brought over by the Romans, were later joined by Sephardic Jews welcomed by the Ottomans during the Iberian expulsions of the 15th century.
 
During the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, the government and tax gathering again remained in the hands of Greeks and the Turkish garrison was small and inconspicuous.<ref>William St. Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free, ''The Philhellenes in the War of Independence'', Oxford University Press, London, 1972, p.79. ISBN 0-19-215194-0.</ref> Chios town itself however, was ethnically segregated, with the castle (Kastro) barred to the native Greeks and inhabited by Turks and Jews.
 
The mainstay of the island's wealth was the mastic crop. Chios was able to make a substantial contribution to the imperial treasury while at the same time maintaining only a light level of taxation. The Ottoman government regarded it as one of the most valuable provinces of the Empire.<ref>William St. Clair, p. 79</ref>
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=== Adalek an XIXvet kantved ===
<!--[[Skeudenn:KonstantinosKanaris.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Nikiphoros Lytras]], " The blowing up of the Nasuh Ali Pasha's flagship by Kanaris ", 143×109 cm. Averoff Gallery.]]
When the [[Greek War of Independence]] broke out, the island's leaders were reluctant to join the revolutionaries, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. However, in March 1822, several hundred armed Greeks from the neighbouring island of [[Samos Island|Samos]] landed in Chios. They proclaimed the Revolution and launched attacks against the Turks, at which point islanders decided to join the struggle.
 
In revenge, the Sultan ordered a [[Chios Massacre|massacre of the islanders]]. The Ottoman massacre of [[Chios massacre|Chios]] expelled, killed, or enslaved five sixths of the 120,000 Greek inhabitants of the island.<ref>[http://greece.org:8080/opencms/opencms/HEC_Projects/Genocide/el/2_Events Hellenic Genocide Events] retrieved May 19, 2008</ref> It wiped out whole villages, and affected the valuable [[Mastichohoria]], the mastic growing villages in the south of the island. It triggered negative public reaction in Western Europe, as can be seen in the art of Delacroix, and in the writing of [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] and [[Victor Hugo]].
 
Further misfortune struck the island in 1881, when an earthquake, estimated as 6.5 on the Richter scale, damaged a large portion of the island's buildings and resulted in great loss of life (reports of the time spoke of 5,500–10,000 fatalities).
 
Chios rejoined the rest of independent Greece after the [[First Balkan War]] (1912), however it was further affected by the population exchanges after the [[Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922]], the incoming Greek refugees settling in the, previously Turkish, Kastro and in new settlements hurriedly built south of Chios Town.
 
Chios was officially annexed from Turkey by the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in 1923.
 
During World War II, the island was occupied by the Germans (1941–44), resulting in severe deprivation for the inhabitants and the deportation of the few remaining Jewish families. Most of the Jews had fled the island during the Turkish attack of 1822, and subsequent earthquake 1881. In 1944, there were no Jews living in Chios.
 
The island saw some local violence during the [[Greek Civil War]] setting neighbour against neighbour. This ended when a band of communist fighters was trapped and killed in the orchards of Kambos and their bodies driven through the main town on the back of a truck. In March 1948, the island was used as an internment camp for female political detainees (communists or relatives of guerillas) and their children, who were housed in military barracks near the town of Chios. Up to 1300 women and 50 children were housed in cramped and degrading conditions, until March 1949 when the camp was closed and the inhabitants moved to Trikeri.<ref>Becoming a Subject: Political Prisoners During the Greek Civil War: Polymeris Voglis, Published 2002Berghahn Books ISBN 1-57181-308-X</ref>
 
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== Notennoù ==