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In [[sociolinguistics]], a '''T-V distinction''' describes the situation wherein a [[language]] has [[Grammatical person|second-person]] [[pronoun]]s that distinguish varying levels of [[politeness]], [[social distance]], [[courtesy]], [[familiarity]], or [[insult]] toward the [[addressee]].
The expressions '''T-form''' and '''V-form''' were introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960), based on the initial letters of these pronouns in [[Latin]], '''''t'''u'' and '''''v'''os''. In [[Latin language|Latin]], ''tu'' was originally the singular, and ''vos'' the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar.
==History and usage==
The expressions '''T-form''' and '''V-form''' were introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960), based on the initial letters of these pronouns in [[Latin]], '''''t'''u'' and '''''v'''os''. In [[Latin language|Latin]], ''tu'' was originally the singular, and ''vos'' the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar. According to Brown and Gilman, usage of the plural to the [[Roman emperor]] began in the fourth century AD. They mention the possibility that this was because there were two emperors at that time (in [[Constantinople]] and [[Rome]]), but also mention that "plurality is a very old and ubiquitous metaphor for power". This usage was extended to other powerful figures, such as [[Pope Gregory I]] (590-604). But they note that it was only between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries that the norms for the use of T- and V-forms crystallized.
Some langs like english have non.
Brown and Gilman argued that the choice of form is governed by either relationships of 'power' and/or 'solidarity', depending on the culture of the speakers, showing that 'power' had been the dominant predictor of form in Europe until the twentieth century. Thus it was quite normal for a powerful person to use a T-form but expect a V-form in return. However in the twentieth century the dynamic shifted in favour of solidarity, so that people would use T-forms with those they knew, and V-forms in service encounters, with [[wiktionary:reciprocity|reciprocal]] usage being the norm in both cases.
Modern [[English language|English]] has no T-V distinction. It can often be confusing for an English speaker learning a language with a T-V distinction to assimilate the rules surrounding when to call someone with the formal or the informal pronoun. Students are often advised to err on the side of caution by using the formal pronouns. However, this risks sounding snobbish or ridiculous. Though English has no [[syntax|syntactic]] T-V distinction, there are [[semantics|semantic]] analogies, such as whether to address someone by [[given name|first name]] or [[Family name|last name]] (or using ''sir'' and ''ma'am''). However the boundaries between formal and informal language differ from language to language, and most languages use formal speech more frequently, and/or in different circumstances than English. In some circumstances it is not unusual to call other people by first name and the respectful form, or last name and familiar form. For example, German shop employees often use these constructs with each other if a customer is present.
The use of these forms calls for [[Untranslatability#Compensation|compensating translation]] of dialogue into English. For example, a character in a French film or novel saying ''"Tutoie-moi!"'' ("Use [the informal pronoun] ''tu'' when addressing me!") might be translated "Don't be so formal!" Conversely, this can lead to constructions denoting an intermediate level of formality in T-V-distinct languages that sound awkward to English-speakers. For example, the catchphrase of "Be careful, Michael" from ''[[Knight Rider]]'' was usually [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] ''"Seien Sie vorsichtig, Michael"'' in German, implying both formality (use of ''Sie'') and familiarity (use of first name).
==Examples of T-V distinctions==
In many languages, the formal singular pronoun derives from a plural form. Many Romance languages have familiar forms derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] singular '''''t'''u'' and formal forms derived from Latin plural '''''v'''os'', sometimes via a circuitous route. A related concept is [[pluralis majestatis]], the use of a first-person plural pronoun as a formal replacement for a first-person singular pronoun. Sometimes, singular V-form derives from a third person pronoun. Some languages have separate T and V forms for both singular and plural; others have the same form; others have a T-V distinction only in the singular.
Different languages distinguish pronoun uses in different ways. Even within languages, there are differences between groups (older people and people of higher status tending to both use and expect more formal language) and between various aspects of one language. For example, in '''Dutch''', ''u'' is slowly coming into disuse in plural, and thus one could sometimes address a group as ''jullie'' when one would address each member individually as ''u''. In '''Latin American Spanish''', the opposite change has occurred – having lost ''vosotros'', Latin Americans address all groups as ''ustedes'', even if the group is composed of friends whom they would call ''tú''. In Standard Peninsular Spanish, however, ''vosotros'' is still regularly employed in familiar conversation. In some cases, V-forms are likely to be [[Capitalization|capitalized]] when written.
Here are some examples of second-person pronouns in languages with T-V distinctions:
| {{lang|zh-CN|你们}} ({{lang|zh-TW|你們}}) ''nǐmen''
| none; regular plural form of {{lang|zh-CN|您们}} ({{lang|zh-TW|您們}}) ''nínmen'' is unusual; instead use other forms like {{lang|zh|大家}} ''dàjiā'' “everyone” or {{lang|zh-CN|你们大家}} ({{lang|zh-TW|你們大家}}).
|-
| [[Croatian language|Croatian]]
| ''ti''
| ''Vi''
| ''vi''
| ''vi''
|-
| [[Czech language|Czech]]
| ''ty''
| ''Vy''
| ''vy''
| ''vy''
|-
| [[Danish language|Danish]]
| ''du''
| ''De''
| ''I''
| ''De''
|-
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| ''jullie'' (from ''jij/jou'' + ''lui'' (people) = "''you people''")
| ''u''
|-
| [[Middle English]] Early Modern English
| ''thou/thee''
| ''ye/you'' (irregular)
| ''ye/you''
| ''ye/you''
|-
| [[Esperanto]]
| ''tit''
| ''tygum''
|-
| [[Filipino language|Filipino]]
| ''ka/ikaw''
| ''kayo''
| ''kayo''
| ''sila''
|-
| [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]]
| ''vous''
| ''vous''
|-
| [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic (Scottish)]]
| ''thu''
| ''sibh''
| ''sibh''
| ''sibh''
|-
| [[Galician language|Galician]]
| ''tu'', ''títi''
| ''vostede''
| ''vós''
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| {{lang|hi|तू}} ''tū'' (very informal)<br/>{{lang|hi|तुम}} ''tum''
| {{lang|hi|आप}} ''āp''
| {{lang|hi|तुम लोग}} ''tum log''
| {{lang|hi|आप लोग}} ''āp log''
|-
| [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
| ''þið''
| ''þér''
|-
| [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
| ''kamu''
| ''Anda''
| ''kalian''
| ''Anda''
|-
| [[Interlingua]]
| ''tu'' (''te'')
| ''vos''
| ''vos''
| ''vos''
|-
| [[Italian language|Italian]]
| {{lang|ja|あなたたち}} ''(anatatachi)''
<br/>{{lang|ja|君たち}} ''(kimitachi)''
|-
| [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
| ''сен (sen)''
| ''сіз (siz)''
| ''сендер (sender)''
| ''сіздер (sizder)''
|-
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
| ''i!a''
| ''i!a''
|-
| [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (North), Kurmanji
| ''tu''
| ''hûn'', ''hingo'', ''tu''
| ''hûn'', ''hingo'
| ''hûn'', ''hingo''
|-
| [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (South), Sorani
| ''to''
| ''êwe'', ''to''
| ''êwe''
| ''êwe''
|-
| [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
| ''сен (sen)''
| ''сиз (siz)''
| ''силер (siler)''
| ''сиздер (sizder)''
|-
| [[Ladino language|Ladino]], see Spanish
| ''tu''
| ''vozótros''
| ''tu''
| ''vozótros''
|-
| [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
| ''tu''
| ''Jūs''
| ''jūs''
| ''Jūs''
|-
| [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
| ''jūs''
| ''Jūs''
|-
| [[Lombard language|Lombard]]
| ''ti''
| ''vü''; or ''lüü'' (male) or ''lée'' (female)
| ''viòltar''
| ''viòltar''; or ''vü''; or ''lur''
|-
| [[Malay language|Malay]]
|''kau orang'', ''korang'', ''hangpa'' (all dialectal)/''kalian'' (archaic)
|''anda''/''kalian'' (archaic)
|-
| [[Norwegian (bokmål) language|Norwegian (bokmål)]]
| ''du''
| ''De''
| ''dere''
| ''De''
|-
| [[Nynorsk|Norwegian (nynorsk)]]
| ''du''
| ''De''
| ''de''
| ''De''
|-
| [[Oriya]]
| ''tu/ tume''
| ''aapano''
| ''tumemane''
| ''aapanomane''
|-
| [[Persian language|Persian]]
| ''{{lang|fa|تو}} to''
| ''{{lang|fa|شما}} shomâ''
| ''{{lang|fa|شما}} shomâ''
| ''{{lang|fa|شما}} shomâ''
|-
| [[Polish language|Polish]]
| ''ty''
| ''pani'' (to a woman)<br/>''pan'' (to a man)<br/><small>(verbs following any of the above addresses are in the 3rd person form)<br/><small>In the early period of the [[History of Poland (1945–1989)|communist rule]], a practice of using the second-person plural form ''wy'' as a formal way of referring to a single person was introduced (a calque from Russian) but it didn't catch on.</small></small>
| ''wy''
| ''państwo'' (general)<br/>''panie'' (to women)<br/>''panowie'' (to men)<br/>(verbs following any of the above addresses are in the 3rd person form)
|-
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (Portugal)
|-
| [[Russian language|Russian]]
| ''{{lang|ru|ты}} (ty)''
| ''{{lang|ru|вы}} (vy) / {{lang|ru|Вы}} (Vy) (addressing officials in letters etc)''
| ''{{lang|ru|вы}} (vy)''
| ''{{lang|ru|вы}} (vy)''
|-
| [[Serbian language|Serbian]]
| ''{{lang|sr|ти}}'' (''ti'')
| ''{{lang|sr|Ви}}'' (''Vi'')
| ''{{lang|sr|ви}}'' (''vi'')
| ''{{lang|sr|ви}}'' (''vi'')
|-
| [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| ''ty''
| ''Vy''
| ''vy''
| ''vy''
|-
| [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
| ''ti''
| ''vi''<br/>''Vi'' (protocolar)
| ''vidva'' (dual), ''vidve'' or ''vedve'' (dual - when addressing two women); ''vi'' (plural), ''ve'' (plural - when addressing only women)
| ''vi'' (dual and plural)
|-
| [[Lower Sorbian language|Sorbian (Lower)]]
| ''ty''
| ''Wy''
| ''wej'' (dual), ''wy'' (plural)
| ''wy''
|-
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (Peninsular, [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Morocco]])
| ''kayó''
| ''kayó''
|-
| [[Tajik language|Tajik]]
| ''{{lang|tg|ту}} (tu)''
| ''{{lang|tg|Шумо}} (Shumo)''
| ''{{lang|tg|шумо}} (shumo)''
| ''{{lang|tg|шумо}} (shumo)'' or ''{{lang|tg|шумоён}} (shumoyon)''(the latter is used in Spoken Tajik only)
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| ''{{lang|tr|sen}}''
| ''{{lang|tr|siz}}''
| ''{{lang|tr|siz}}''
| ''{{lang|tr|siz, sizler}}''
|-
| [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]
| ''{{unicode|wæghʷa}}''
| ''{{unicode|sʸæghʷaalha}}''
| ''{{unicode|sʸæghʷaalha}}''
| ''{{unicode|sʸæghʷaalha}}''
|-
| [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| ''{{lang|uk|ти}} (ty)''
| ''{{lang|uk|ви}} (vy) / {{lang|uk|Ви}} (Vy) (addressing officials in letters etc)''
| ''{{lang|uk|ви}} (vy)''
| ''{{lang|uk|ви}} (vy)''
|-
| [[Urdu]]
| {{lang|ur|تو}} ''tū'' (very informal)<br/>{{lang|ur|تم}} ''tum''
| {{lang|ur|آپ}} ''āp''
| {{lang|ur|تم لوگ}} ''tum log''
| {{lang|ur|آپ لوگ}} ''āp log''
|-
| [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]
| سەن ''sän''
| سىز ''siz'' or سىلى ''sili''
| سىلەر ''silär''
| سىزلەر''sizlär''
|-
| [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
| ''chi'' or ''chwi''
| ''chi'' or ''chwi''
|-
| [[Yiddish]]
| ''du''
| ''ir''
| ''ir''
| ''ir''
|}
==Language-specific remarks==
===Catalan===
[[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''vós'' follows the same concordance rules as the French ''vous'' (verbs in second person plural, adjectives in singular), and ''vostè'' follows the same concordance rules as the Spanish ''usted'' (verbs in 3rd person). ''Vostè'' originated from ''vostra mercè'' as a [[calque]] from Spanish, and replaced the original Catalan form ''vós''. Now ''vós'' is used as a respectful form for elders and respected friends, and ''vostè'' for foreigners and people whom one doesn't know well. ''Vostè'' is more distant than ''vós''.
===Croatian===
Use of ''ti'' is limited to friends and family, and used among children. In any formal use ''vi'' is used only; ''ti'' can be used among peers in a workplace, but rarely in official documents. ''Vi'' is almost always capitalized, as a sign of respect.
===Czech===
Traditionally, use of the informal form was limited for relatives and very close friends, for children or to explicitly express social distance. During the second half of the 20th century, use of the informal form grew significantly among coworkers, youth and members of organisations and groups. The formal form is always used in official documents and when dealing with a stranger (especially an older one) as a sign of respect. Capitalizing the formal "''Vy''" is slowly getting obsolete. A variant of the formal form modeled after German "Sie" (''Oni/oni'', ''Jejich/jejich'', verb ''onikat'') was frequently used during 19th century but disappeared.
===Danish===
In Denmark, the use of the formal forms of address has diminished significantly over the last twenty years. ''De'' is still used in the written language, in official letters and the like, but the spoken form will be ''du''. For example, a letter from the Inspector of Taxes inviting you a meeting to go through last year's tax return will use ''De'', but during the meeting itself, everyone will say ''du''. The only people you are expected to say ''De'' to are the royal family. Waiters might very occasionally use ''De'', but this is unexpectedly formal.
In general, say ''du'' to one person, and ''I'' to more than one. Write ''du'' if you know the name of the person to whom you are writing, and ''De'' if you do not.
===Dutch===
In the Netherlands (note: this is different in Flanders), the use of formal forms is distinctly less common in modern times. One would use '''u''' when addressing a supervisor at work or someone else who is higher up the hierarchy in similar situations. However, Dutch society traditionally upholds strong values of equality, making the use of '''u''' come across as somewhat distant and uncomfortable. When addressing strangers, for example, it is common to use '''jij/je''', which is regarded as welcoming or a sign of friendliness.
===English===
{{seealso|Thou}}
Anglo-Saxon (a.k.a. [[Old English]]) had no distinction between formal and informal "you". In Middle English, in the 13th century, the term "ye" was used as a formal version of "thou" (to superiors or non-intimates) — however, this use was often contextually-dependent (i.e. changing dynamically according to shifting nuances in the relationship between two people), rather than static. By the 17th century, "thou" increasingly acquired connotations of contemptuous address, or of addressing one's social inferiors (so the prosecutor in [[Sir Walter Raleigh]]'s 1603 trial declaimed "I thou thee, thou traitor!"). Therefore the frequency of use of "thou" started to decline, and it was effectively extinct in the everyday speech of many dialects by the early 18th century. Its use is now archaic except in certain regional dialects, usually as "tha", and Modern English today makes no T-V distinction
The use of the term "thou," however, survives in some liturgical language when addressing God, most notably in the [[Lord's Prayer]] (Our Father, Paternoster), where it is used to imply closeness and friendship with God. It is also sometimes found in liturgical dialogue, where it has been retained to suggest community and familiarity (for example, "R. The Lord be with you (pl.) R. And with thy spirit."). Although this may seem odd, the same phenomenon can be found in modern vernacular translations of the Western liturgy into languages which normally retain the T-V distinction.
Originally "ye" and "thou" were nominative pronouns, while "you" and "thee" were accusative forms, but by the 15th century, "you" had begun being used as a subject pronoun, and only "thee" survived into [[Quaker]] "[[Testimony_of_Simplicity#Simplicity_in_speech|Plain Speech]]".
===Esperanto===
The [[constructed language]] [[Esperanto]] is not a T-V-distinguishing language. ''Vi'' is the generic second person for both singular and plural, just like ''you'' in English. An informal second person singular pronoun, ''ci'', does exist, but only in theory. It is almost never used in practice.
Some have imagined ''ci'' as an archaic term that was used before and then fell out of common usage, however this is not true. It has only appeared sometimes in experimental language. In standard Esperanto, ''vi'' has always been used since the beginning. For example, ''ci'' appears in neither the ''[[Fundamento de Esperanto|Fundamenta Gramatiko]]'' nor in the ''[[Unua Libro]]''.
Source: http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
===Estonian===
Estonian is a language with T-V distinction, second person plural (''teie'') is used instead of second person singular (''sina'') as a means of expressing politeness or formal speech. ''Sina'' is the familiar form of address used with family, friends, and minors. The distinction is still much more widely used and more rigid than in closely related Finnish language.
Similar to the French language ''vouvoyer'', the verb ''teietama'' is used, and ''teie'' is used when addressing a (new) customer or a patient, or when talking to a person in his/her function. In hierarchical organizations, like large businesses or armies, ''sina'' is used between members of a same rank/level while ''teie'' is used between members of different ranks. ''Sina'' (the verb ''sinatama'' is also used) is used with relatives, friends, when addressing children and with close colleagues. Borderline situations, such as distant relatives, young adults, customers in a rental shops or new colleagues, sometimes still present difficulties.
===Finnish===
Today, the use of the informal singular form of address is widespread in all social circles, even among strangers and in business situations. A counter-trend has been reported in recent years, whereby some people are choosing to use the formal plural more often, but in practice it is very unusual to use this form unless addressing people considerably one's senior or in situations where strict adherence to form is expected, such as in the military. As the use of formal plural conveys formal recognition of addressee's status and of polite distance, the formal plural may also be used jeeringly or to protest addressee's snobbery. A native speaker may also switch to formal plural when speaking in anger, as an attempt to remain civil.
The number is expressed in pronouns (''sinä'' or ''sä'' for singular, or ''te'' for plural), verb inflections, and [[possessive suffix]]es. For example, imperatives are expressed in the plural, e.g. ''menkää'' "go(pl.)!". Likewise, the ''-nne'' "your" suffix is used instead of the singular ''-s(i)'' suffix. There is number agreement in Finnish, thus you say ''sinä olet'' "you(sg.) are", but ''te olette'' "you(pl.) are". However, this does not extend to words describing the addressee, which are in the singular. For example, ''oletteko te lääkäri?'' "are(pl.) you(pl.) doctor(sg.)?" A common error, nowadays often made even by native speakers unused to the formal plural, is using the plural form of the main verb in the perfect and pluperfect tenses. The main verb should be in the singular when addressing one person in the formal plural: ''Oletteko kuullut?'' instead of ''*Oletteko kuulleet?'' "Have you heard?"
Sometimes the third person is used as a polite form of address, after the Swedish model: ''Mitä rouvalle saisi olla?'' "What would madam like to have?" The passive voice may be used to circumvent the choice of the correct form of address; the passive voice is also the equivalent of the English patronizing we as in ''Kuinkas tänään voidaan?'' "How are we feeling today?"
===French===
In most [[French language|French]]-speaking regions (Canada is an exception; see below), a rigid ''tu-vous'' distinction is upheld. ''Vous'' is expected when encountering any completely unknown adult under normal circumstances; "abnormal" circumstances include emotional situations like surprising a thief, or addressing informally other road-users while driving. New acquaintances who are conscious of having something socially significant in common (e.g. student status, or the same "rank" in some hierarchy) may use ''tu'' more or less immediately as a sign of solidarity. In some cases there may be an explicitly defined practice in a particular company, political party, etc. In general, however, the switch from ''vous'' to ''tu'' is "negotiated" on a case-by-case basis; it can happen nearly unconsciously, or it can become extremely complicated. Rigidly sticking to ''vous'' can become equally awkward in a long-standing relationship. Children (including teenagers) generally use ''tu'' to speak with another child, whether known or not.
Two people who use ''tu'' in their private interactions may consciously switch back to ''vous'' in public, for example in a formal or professional environment, or in an artificially constructed situation (e.g. co-hosts of a television show), or simply to conceal the nature of their relationship from others. In some families, the traditional habit is followed : ''vous'' is used to address older family members; more rarely, children are taught to use ''vous'' to address their parents, and ''vous'' is sometimes even used between spouses.
The T-V distinction exists only in the singular in French. ''Vous'' is the second person plural pronoun in all situations.
Terminology:
*''tutoyer'' (verb), ''tutoiement'' (noun) — calling someone "''tu''"
*''vouvoyer'' (or rarely, ''vousoyer'', ''voussoyer''), ''vouvoiement'' (''vousoiement'', ''voussoiement'') — calling someone "''vous''"
*''faire schmolitz'' ([[Swiss French]]) — making the transition from ''vouvoiement'' to ''tutoiement'', traditionally over a drink
Sources:
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2000/02/19/blume.t.php "Mastering the Unmasterable: A French Puzzle"] Mary Blume, ''International Herald Tribune'', February 19, 2000
*[http://www.largeur.com/expArt.asp?artID=1868 "Dites-moi tu"] Sophie Balbo, ''L'Hebdo'', June 23, 2005
====Canadian French====
Similarly to Danish, [[Canadian French|Canadian dialects of French]], including [[Quebec French]] and [[Acadian French]], permit and expect a far broader usage of the familiar ''tu'' than in [[Standard French]]. There are still circumstances where it is appropriate and expected to say ''vous'': in a formal interview (notably for a job), when addressing a person of very high rank (a judge, or a prime minister), when speaking to senior citizens, or when addressing customers. For a number of Francophones in Canada, ''vous'' sounds stilted or snobbish, and archaic. By no means is ''tu'' restricted to intimates or social inferiors. There is however an important minority of people, often those who call for a use of standard French in Quebec, who prefer to be addressed as ''vous''. At [[Radio-Canada]] (the public broadcaster, often considered as establishing the normative objectives of standard French in Canada), the use of ''vous'' is widespread even between colleagues.
Finally, in familiar language, it is usual to use a "generic ''tu''" (cf. English [[generic you]]) instead of "''on''", which is used solely as a first-person plural.
===German===
In [[German language|German]], the respectful form is the same as the third person plural. In [[Germany]], an old but by no means extinct [[Norm (sociology)|custom]] (called ''Bruderschaft trinken'', "drinking brotherhood") involves two (male) friends formally splitting a bottle of [[wine]] or drinking a glass of [[beer]] together to celebrate their deciding (mostly proposed by the elder or socially higher-standing of the two) to call one another ''du'' rather than ''Sie''. Note this custom is also adapted among the Swiss-French of the Jura. It is also a custom to propose the use of ''du'' rather than ''Sie'' by the opening sentence "Ich heiße ..." followed by one's own first name. One accepts the proposal by replying with the same sentence. The verbs ''duzen'' and ''siezen'' mean respectively "to call ''du''" and "to call ''Sie''".
In most parts of Germany there is no clear custom on how to address a group the individual members of which the speaker would address in part as ''du'', in part as ''Sie''. As both plural pronouns, the informal ''ihr'' and the formal ''Sie'', can offend improperly addressed members of the group, circumlocutions that avoid the use of pronouns are often employed in such cases. Generally, it can be said, that everyone up to the age of 16 can without problems be addressed as ''du''. In most circumstances, adults should at first always be called ''Sie'', however there are exceptions: parents with small children, talking to the parents of their child's friends normaly switch very quickly to ''du''. Children and teenagers are supposed to address all unknown adults as ''Sie''. In most sportclubs however, it may be considered overly formal to say ''Sie'' to anyone.
"Ihr", capitalized, was formerly used in addressing social superiors, unless more informal relations had been established. This form remains until today in some dialects as a respectful way of addressing elders. "Er" (male) or "Sie" (female), capitalized, was similarly used in the second person to address a social inferior, as a master addressing a servant, but is now obsolete. "Ihr" is also used in historical movies when addressing royalty and similar persons.
In Internet chats and forums, however, Germans rarely use "Sie", although there are exceptions.
===Greek===
In Greek, ''sy'' ({{polytonic|σὺ}}) was originally the singular, and ''hymeis'' ({{polytonic|ὑμεῖς}}) the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar. [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] addressed King [[Agrippa II]] as ''sy'' ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 26:2). Later, ''hymeis'' and ''hēmeis'' {{polytonic|ἡμεῖς}} ("we") became too close in pronunciation, and a new plural ''eseis'' ({{polytonic|ἐσεῖς}}) was invented. The ''e'' ({{polytonic|ἐ}}) of ''esy'' ({{polytonic|ἐσὺ}}) is a euphonic prefix.
===Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu)===
In both versions of [[Hindustani]], there are three levels of honorifics:
*'''आप آپ''' āp/[αːp]: Formal and respectable form for ''you''. Used in all formal settings and speaking to persons who are senior in job or age. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of "you people" (آپ لوگ ''āp log'')) or "you all" (آپ سب ''āp sab'').
*'''तुम تُم''' tum/[tum]: Informal form of ''you''. Used in all informal settings and speaking to persons who are junior in job or age. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of "you people" (تُم لوگ ''tum log'') or "you all" (تُم سب ''tum sab'').
*'''तू تُو''' tū/[tuː]: Extremely informal form of ''you'', as ''thou''. Strictly singular, its plural form would be تُم ''tum''. Inappropriate use of this form — i.e. other than in addressing children, very close friends, or in poetic language (either with God or with lovers) — risks being perceived as offensive in Pakistan or India.
===Hungarian===
{{hulang}}
[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] provides numerous, often subtle means of T-V distinction:
The use of the second-person conjugation with the pronoun ''te'' (plural ''ti'') is the most informal mode. As in many other European languages, it is used within families, among children, lovers, close friends, (nowadays often) among coworkers, and in some [[community|communities]], suggesting an idea of brotherhood. Adults unilaterally address children this way, and it is also the form used in addressing God, animals, and objects or ideas. Sociologically, the use of this form is widening. Whereas traditionally the switch to ''te'' is often a symbolic milestone between people, sometimes sealed by drinking a glass of wine together ("pertu"), today people under the age of about 30 will often mutually adopt ''te'' automatically in informal situations. A notable example is the Internet: strangers meeting online use the informal forms of address virtually exclusively, regardless of age or status differences. [[IKEA]] (or rather, its Hungarian team) was noted and practically unique in its choice of this way of addressing people in Hungary in its brochures; reactions were mixed.
Nevertheless, formal forms of address are alive and well in Hungarian:
* The third-person verb conjugation is the primary basis of formal address. The choice of which ''pronoun'' to use, however, is fraught with difficulty (and indeed a common solution when in doubt is to simply avoid using any pronoun at all). <!-- this isn't restricted to the nominative. consider things you might say to someone, say, who just arrived in your city: "Isten hozta" [önt]; "Milyen volt az útja?" [önnek]; "Remélem, tetszik a városunk" [önnek]; ( a taxiban) "Hova vihetem?" [önt]; stb. stb. stb. ... -->
** The pronoun ''maga'' (plural ''maguk''), for instance, is considered the basic formal equivalent of "you," but may not be used indiscriminately, as it tends to imply an existing or desired personal acquaintance. (It would not, for instance, ordinarily be used in a conversation where the relative social roles are predominantly important – say, between professor and student.) Typical situations where ''maga'' might be used are, e.g., fairly distant relatives, neighbours, fellow-travellers on the train, or at the hairdresser's. If one already knows these people, they may even take offence if one were to address them more formally. On the other hand, some urbanites tend to avoid ''maga'', finding it too rural, old-fashioned, offensive or even intimate.
** ''Ön'' (plural ''Önök'') is the formal, official and impersonal "you". It is the form used when people take part in a situation merely as representatives of [[Role|social roles]], where personal acquaintance is not a factor. It is thus used in institutions, business, bureaucracy, advertisements, by broadcasters,<!-- seems clear enough to me that broadcasting to the public is meant here --> by shopkeepers to their customers, and whenever one wishes to maintain one's distance. It is less typical of rural areas or small towns, more typical of cities. <!-- An example would be a telephone company administrator. -- probably the above list of examples is sufficient, "telephone company administrator" sounds comically overspecific to me -->
** Other pronouns are nowadays rare, restricted to rural, jocular, dialect, or old-fashioned speech. Such are, for instance, ''kend'' and ''kegyed''.
** There is a wide spectrum of third-person address that avoids the above pronouns entirely, preferring to substitute various combinations of the addressed's names and/or titles. Thus, for instance, a university student might ask ''mit gondol X. tanár úr?'' ("what does Professor X. think?", meant for the [[addressee]]) rather than using the insufficiently formal ''maga'' or the overly impersonal ''Ön''. (Note that it's possible because the formal second-person conjugation of verbs is the same as the third-person conjugation.)
* Finally, the [[auxiliary verb]] ''tetszik'' (lit. "it pleases [you]") is an indirect alternative (or, perhaps, supplement) to direct address with the third or even second person. It is very polite (sometimes seen as over-polite) but generally speaking not as formal as the ''Ön/maga'' form. Children usually address adults outside their family this way. Adults may address more distant relatives, [[housekeeper (servant)|housekeeper]]s and older persons using this form, and some men habitually address older or younger women this way (this is slightly old-fashioned). <!-- A prototypical example would be a man addressing his aged [[mother-in-law]]. < The relationship of a mother-in-law and a son-in-law is traditionally not very good. --- yeah, but that's why he uses tetszik and not te :-) -- There are enough examples given above. -->
{| class="wikitable" align=center
! ||colspan=2|Example: "you" in the nominative<br>"Will you be leaving tomorrow?"||colspan=3|Example: "you" in the accusative<br>"I saw you yesterday on TV."
|-
!Te
|colspan=2|''(Te) holnap utazol el?''||colspan=3|''Láttalak tegnap a tévében.''
|-
!Maga
|''(Maga)''||rowspan=3|''holnap utazik el?''||rowspan=3|''Láttam''||''magát''||rowspan=3|''tegnap a tévében.''
|-
!Ön
|''(Ön)''||''önt''
|-
!∅
|''Tanár úr''*||''Tanár urat''*
|-
!Tetszik
|colspan=2|''Holnap tetszik elutazni?''
|colspan=3|''Láttam tegnap Mari nénit** a tévében.''<br>OR ''Láttam magát tegnap a tévében.''
|}
:<nowiki>*</nowiki> "Tanár úr" is a form of addressing for professors (cf. "Sir"); "tanár urat" is the accusative. Other forms of addressing are also possible, so as to avoid specifying the ''maga'' and ''ön'' pronouns.
:<nowiki>**</nowiki> "Mari nénit" is an example name in the accusative (cf. "Aunt Mary").
===Italian===
In [[Italian language|Italian]] the formal second person for singular is ''lei'', which means "her" (as [[accusative]] form of ''she''). It is often capitalized as a sign of respect. Since in Italian ''egli'' ("he"), ''essi'' ("they") and especially ''ella'' ("she") have fallen out of common use, being replaced by ''lui'' ("him"), ''loro'' ("them") and ''lei'' ("her"), it is also possible to use ''Ella'' as a very polite alternative, but this is very rarely used if ever, and is perceived as very archaic or snobbish. Under [[Fascist]] rule, attempts were made to convert the polite form to ''voi'' ("ye"), with some success. ''Voi'' might still be used by some, especially in southern Italy; in this case both ''voi'' and ''lei'' are used, while ''voi'' is more formal than ''lei''.
The polite plural form ''Loro'' ("them") is used rarely, as ''voi'' is often perceived already as polite enough.
''Lei'' is generally concorded, when necessary, with the gender of the addressee, not therefore necessarily female. It might actually not be present in sentences as Italian is not subject-compulsory, and is then understood by the verb being conjugated in the third person.
* "Have you ever been in Rome?"
** "Lei è mai stato a Roma?" (''-o'': to a male)
** "Lei è mai stata a Roma?" (''-a'': to a female)
The origin of ''Lei'' is probably due to expressions as ''Your majesty/eminence/holiness/...'', where all of these substantives were female in gender ("Maestà/Eminenza/Santità/Signoria/...").
''Lei'' is normally used in formal settings, with strangers, older or otherwise respected people. Currently, people address strangers of their own age using the informal ''tu'' until about thirty years of age.
=== Japanese===
In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], as in Vietnamese, kinship terms, titles, or names are commonly used instead of first-, second- or third-person pronouns. As in Korean, there are several levels of politeness regarding to social hierarchy, and polite language encompasses not only pronouns, but verb endings and vocabulary as well. (See the articles [[Japanese pronouns]] and [[Japanese honorifics]] for more information.)
=== Korean ===
Much like Japanese, the [[Korean language]] has complex gradations. It uses honorifics and no less than seven speech levels, making for a cartesian product of 14 basic verb stems. Nevertheless, most levels have all but disappeared from everyday language, so one can simplify this into the basic distinction between ''plain'' and ''polite'' conjugations of verbs and adjectives. In general, the plain form is used when speaking to family, close friends, and social inferiors, and the polite form otherwise. When two Korean-speaking strangers meet where none is the obvious social superior, both use the polite form; when it is determined that one or both can switch to the plain form, one often asks for permission for this switch. The phrase used to describe this is ''mareul nota'' (literally “to release language”). In Korean, the polite form is called ''jondaenmal'' and the plain form is called ''yesanmal'' or ''banmal''. In contrast to the neutral term ''yesanmal'', ''banmal'' (literally “half speech”) often has a rather negative connotation, referring for instance to the plain form that one may deliberately use to provoke someone who should be addressed in the polite form.
There is a similar phenomenon called ''nopimmal'', which is honorific speech triggered not by the addressee but by the content of an expression. It is used independently of the speech levels. For example, in ''-hasimnida'' “do(es) …”, the speaker uses the infix ''-si-'' to honour the subject of the sentence and the ending ''-mnida'' to express courtesy or politeness (or simply his distance) towards the addressee. As the subject of the sentence and the addressee don't have to be the same person both forms can be mixed. The speaker can honour a higher person he's talking about with the infix ''-si-'' while talking to a friend who is addressed in the informal ''banmal''.
===Norwegian (bokmål)===
In Norwegian, the use of the polite form ''De'' is today all but extinct. Norwegians almost exclusively use ''du'' in their daily life. ''De'' may still be used in some very formal situations or when talking to elderly people, but may be considered rude in other settings. ''De'' can also be found in written works, theatrical plays and translations where an impression of formality must be retained.
[However, it should be mentioned that Norwegians also generally refer to one another by first name only unless the person is better known by their full or last name only, putting this weakening of the courteous pronoun into a general pattern of declining use of polite speech.
Example: A student might address his professor John Doe, not as "Mr./Dr. Doe", but as "John", but would refer to the president of the US as "Bush", not "George".
Nicknames are not very common.]
===Portuguese===
{{further|[[Portuguese pronouns]]}}
In very broad terms, Portuguese ''tu'', ''você'' (both meaning singular "you") and ''vocês'' (plural "you") are used in informal situations, while in formal contexts ''o senhor'', ''a senhora'', ''os senhores'' and ''as senhoras'' (masculine singular, feminine singular, masculine plural, and feminine plural "you", respectively) are preferred. However, there is considerable regional variation in the use of these terms, and more specific [[form of address|forms of address]] are sometimes employed.
Historically, ''você'' derives from ''vossa mercê'' ("your mercy" or "your grace") via the intermediate forms ''vossemecê'' and ''vosmecê''; compare with the derivation of Spanish ''usted'' from ''vuestra merced''. For that reason, ''você'' and ''vocês'' require verbs conjugated in the 3rd. person, rather than the 2nd. person.
The second person plural pronoun ''vós'', from Latin ''vos'', has fallen into disuse in all but a few regional dialects of Northern Portugal, where it expresses an intermediate degree of formality between ''tu'' and ''você(s)''. Its use is kept as an archaism in literature (historical setting), [[prayer]] (when addressing a [[deity]]) or exaggerated (incl. mock) ceremonial.
===Romanian===
[[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''dumneavoastră'' when used for the second-person singular formal takes plural verbs but singular adjectives, similar to French ''vous''. It originates from ''domnia voastră'' - your lordship. The form ''dumneata'' originating from ''domnia ta'' - thy lordship is less distant than ''dumneavoastră'' and somewhat midway between ''tu'' and ''dumneavoastră'' .
===Russian===
{{Unreferenced|date=February 2007}}
Russian distinguishes between familiar '''''ty''''' (''ты'') and respectful '''''Vy''''' (''Вы''), which is also used familiar address for several people. (Respectful ''Vy'' is capitalized, while plural ''vy'' is not.) Generally, ''ty'' is used among friends and relatives, but the usage depends not only on the closeness of the relationship but also on age and the formality of the situation (e.g., work meeting vs. a party). Children always ''ty'' to address each other and are addressed this way by adults but are taught to address adults with ''vy''. Younger adults typically also address older adults outside the family as ''vy'' regardless of intimacy, and may be addressed as ''ty'' in return. When talking to each other young people often start with the formal ''vy'' when talking to each other but may transition to ''ty'' very quickly in an informal situation. Among older people ''ty'' is often reserved for closer acquaintances. Unless there is a substantial difference in age, the choice of the form is symmetric: if A uses ''ty'' to address B, then B also uses ''ty'' to address A. While people may transition quickly from ''vy'' to ''ty'', such transition presumes mutual agreement. Use of ''ty'' without consent of the other person is likely to be viewed as poor conduct or even as an insult, particularly if the other party maintains using ''vy''.
Historically, the rules have been in favor of more formal usage; as late as the [[19th century]], it was accepted in many circles (generally among the more educated) that ''vy'' is to be used between close friends, between husband and wife, and when addressing one's parents (but not one's children), all of which situations today would strongly call for using ''ty''.
The choice between ''ty'' and ''vy'' is closely related, yet sometimes different, from the choice of the addressing format - that is, the selection from the first name, [[patronymics]], last name, and the title to be used when addressing the person. Normally, ''ty'' is associated with the informal addressing by first name only (or, even more informally, by the patronymics only), whereas ''vy'' is associated with the more formal addressing format of using the first name together with patronymics (roughly analogous to "title followed by last name" in English) or the last name alone or with a title (the last name is almost never used together with either of the other two names to ''address'' someone, although such combinations are routinely used to ''introduce'' or ''mention'' someone). However, sometimes an informal addressing scheme is used with ''vy'', and conversely, a more formal scheme with ''ty''. The former is sometimes associated with the [[intelligentsia]], while the latter may be associated with the less educated people, particularly those assuming positions of some influence under the [[Communist Party of the USSR]].
===Scottish Gaelic===
The informal form of the second-person singular in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] is ''thu'' (emphatic: ''thusa''), used when addressing a person the speaker knows well, or when addressing a person younger or relatively the same age as the speaker. When addressing a superior, an elder, or a stranger, or in conducting business, the form ''sibh'' (emphatic: ''sibhse'') is used. (''Sibh'' is also the second-person plural). This distinction carries over into [[conjugated preposition|prepositional pronouns]]: for instance, ''agad'' and ''agaibh'' (at you), ''riut'' and ''ruibh'' (with you), ''umad'' and ''umaibh'' (about you), etc.
===Spanish===
{{further|[[Spanish dialects and varieties#Grammatical differences|Spanish dialects and varieties]]}}
In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], the respectful form requires verbs to be conjugated in the third [[person (grammar)|person]] singular; this is because the form ''usted'' evolved from the title ''vuestra merced'' (your grace) which naturally took the third person. Compare Portuguese ''você''. In some cases, if talking to a younger person, elder people tend to use the form ''usted'' combining it with the first name, or combining it with ''Don'' (e.g. ''Don Miguel''), if the other person is older.
Close friends, of course, are ''tú'' and venerable old ladies are ''usted'', but there is a wide grey area in the middle. Even that is not universally true: in the Spanish dialects of some parts of Latin America (for example, in many parts of [[Colombia]] and [[Guatemala]]), ''tú'' is almost never used, not even with close friends or relatives, which are ''usted'', and ''tú'' is more common in Mexico and California: advertisements often use ''tú'' or its possessive ''tu'', for example "En tu canal 73"/Lit ("On your channel 73"). In Argentina, where [[Rioplatense Spanish]] is very common, the informal pronoun ''tú'' is replaced with ''vos'', which is used rather indiscriminately (see [[voseo]]).
In the plural, Spanish presents the T-form ''vosotros'' and the V-form ''ustedes'', which uses verbs in the third person plural. However, only Northern Spain has retained this distinction, while in Southern Spain, the Canaries and Latin America ''ustedes'' is the only form used in all contexts.
===Swedish===
In Swedish there has been a marked difference between usage in [[Finland-Swedish]] compared to in [[Sweden]]. While the form ''Ni'' (noted as formal above) has remained the common respectful address in Finland-Swedish, it was until the [[1960s]] considered somewhat careless, bullying or rude in Sweden, where addressing in 3rd [[person (grammar)|person]] with repetition of ''name and title'' was considered proper and respectful. After that the usage swiftly changed in Sweden, and the 2nd person ''du'' (noted as informal above) came to dominate totally, until recently when in the late [[1990s]] a usage resembling that in Finnish or Finland-Swedish has become popular among the youngest adults. It is also now common to see ''Du'' capitalized in places where the formal ''Ni'' would have been used before, such as in printed instructions or on signs.
Today, ''Ni'' starts to become more often used. In the late 90s, ''Ni'' was all but extinct, now businesspartners often say ''Ni'' again; everyone estimated older than 35 might also be adressed as ''Ni'' in shops and restarants.
===Turkish===
In contemporary [[Turkish language|Turkish]], T-V distinction is strong. Friends and family members speak to one another using the second singular person "sen" as well as adults use "sen" to address minors. In formal situations (meeting people first time, business, customer-clerk, colleagues) second plural "siz" is used widely. In very formal situations double plural second person "sizler" may be used to refer to a very respected person. Rarely, third plural conjugation of the verb (but not the pronoun) may be used to emphasize utmost respect. In imperative, there are three forms: second singular person for informal, 2nd plural person for formal and double plural 2nd person for very formal situations: "gel" (second singular, informal), "gelin" (second plural, formal), "geliniz" (double second plural, very formal). The very formal forms are not frequently used.
===Ubykh===
In the extinct [[Ubykh language]], the T-V distinction was most notable between a man and his mother-in-law, where the plural form ''{{unicode|sʸæghʷa}}'' supplanted the singular ''{{unicode|wæghʷa}}'' very frequently, possibly under the influence of [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. The distinction was upheld less frequently in other relationships, but did still occur.
===Uyghur===
The [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] language is notable for using four different forms, to distinguish both singular and plural in both formal and informal registers. The informal plural ''silär'' originated as a contraction of ''sizlär'', which uses a regular plural ending. In Old Turkic, as still in modern Turkish, ''siz'' was the original second-person plural. However, in modern Uyghur ''siz'' has become restricted to the formal singular, requiring the plural suffix -''lär'' for the plurals.
''Siz'' as the formal singular pronoun is characteristic of Ürümchi dialect, which is the Uyghur literary standard. In Turfan they say ''sili'' and in Kashgar dialect, ''özlär''. ''Sili'' is also used in other areas sometimes, while in literary Uyghur ''özlär'' as a singular pronoun is considered a "hyperdeferential" level of respect; the deferential plural form is ''härqaysiliri''.
===Vietnamese ===
{{main|Vietnamese pronouns}}
Vietnamese does not have a clear concept of pronouns. Any noun can be used to refer to people, especially kinship terms. Pronouns are sometimes not needed in a normal conversation, as the speaker can always refer to him/herself, the audience, and others directly by name, which might seem strange to English speakers. The nouns used to refer to people can reveal not only the level of formality, but also the social relationship between the speaker and the person being referred to, differences in age, and even the attitude of the speaker toward the person being referred to.
There is an informal second-person pronoun: ''mày''. This term is always condescending and should only be used with someone who is both familiar with and subordinate to the speaker. Young people also utilize it frequently.
== Related verbs, nouns and pronouns ==
* [[Raganv]]
[[Rummad:YrezhoniezhYezhoniezh]]
[[de:Duzen]]
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