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* Individual-level predicates
An '''individual-level predicate''' ("i-l predicate") is true throughout the existence of an individual. For example, if John is "smart", this is a property of him, regardless which particular point in time we consider.
I-l predicates are more restricted than s-l ones. I-l predicates can't occur in ''presentational'' "there" sentences (a star in front of a sentence indicates that it is odd or ill-formed):
: There are firemen available. ("available" is s-l)
: *There are firemen altruistic. ("altruistic" is i-l)
S-l predicates allow modification by manner adverbs and other adverbial modifiers. I-l ones do not.
: John spoke French loudly in the corridor. ("speak French" can be interpreted as s-l)
: *John knew French loudly in the corridor. ("know French" can't be interpreted as s-l)
When an i-l predicate occurs in [[past tense]], it gives rise to what is called a "lifetime effect": The subject must be assumed to be dead or otherwise gone out of existence.
: John was available. (s-l <math>\rightarrow</math> no lifetime effect)
: John was altruistic. (i-l<math>\rightarrow</math> lifetime effect.)
* Kind-level predicates
: Humans are widespread.
Certain types of [[noun phrase]] can't be the subject of a k-l predicate. We have just seen that a [[proper name]] can't be. [[Singular]] [[article (grammar)|indefinite]] noun phrases are also banned from this environment:
: *A nightmare is widespread. (compare: Nightmares are widespread.)
* Collective vs. distributive predicates
: The students formed a line.
: *The student formed a line.
Other examples of collective predicates include "meet in the woods", "surround the house", "gather in the hallway" and "carry the piano together". Note that the last one ("carry the piano together") can be made non-collective by removing the word "together". [[Quantifiers]] differ with respect to whether or not they can be the subject of a collective predicate. For example, quantifiers formed with "all the" can, while ones formed with "every" or "each" cannot.
: All the students formed a line.
: All the students gathered in the hallway.
: All the students carried a piano together.
: *Each student gathered in the hallway.
: *Every student formed a line.
Vendler classes
The philosopher [[Zeno Vendler]] came up with an [[grammatical aspect|aspectual]] classification of [[verb]]s, roughly having to do with how they present the temporal span of the events they refer to. After the work of the Dutch [[semantics|semanticist]] Henk Verkuyl, it has been widely acknowledged that the Vendler classes pertain to predicates and not to verbs. Whether or not the Vendler classes in their original form are correct is a hotly disputed topic within the semantic theory of [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[telicity]]. There is a wide consensus that something like them is relevant, however. For some discussion see the references below. Vendler's classes are as follows.
* Stadoù
A predicate is a ''state'' if it presents an event as a static [[state of affairs]], i.e. an event where nothing changes. Stative predicates present events as ''unbounded'' in time. Put differently, a sentence like "John is ill" says nothing in particular about the temporal extent of the state he's in. Examples of stative predicates are "be ill", "sleep soundly", "know French". States typically can't occur in the [[progressive (grammar)|progressive]] in English:
: *John is being ill.
: *John is knowing French.
They can occur with time-span adverbials like ''for an hour'', but not with ''time-frame adverbials'' like "in an hour".
: John was ill for an hour/*in an hour.
* Oberoù
Activities are like states in presenting events as ''unbounded'' in time, but they differ from states in involving some kind of change. Examples of activity predicates include "run in the park", "snore loudly", "fall through the air", etc.
Activities can occur in the progressive.
: John is snoring loudly.
: John is falling through the air.
They can occur with time-span adverbials, but not time-frame adverbials:
: John snored for an hour/*in an hour.
* Accomplishments
Accomplishment predicates also involve change, but they present the events they refer to as ''bounded'' in time. They can be decomposed into two endpoints (the beginning and the culmination of the event) and a process part. Examples of accomplishment predicates are "build a house", "run to the store".
Accomplishments can occur in the progressive. They do not occur with time-span adverbials, but do occur with time-frame adverbials.
: John is running to the store
: John ran to the store in an hour/*for an hour.
* Achievements
Achievement predicates are like accomplishments lacking a process part. They denote punctual change. Examples of achievement predicates are "reach the top", "win the race", "find his glasses".
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