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Older textbooks on Gaelic sometimes refer to the ''c → ch'' mutation as "aspiration", but it is not [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] in the technical sense of the word, and linguists prefer to speak of [[lenition]] here.
==English==
== MutationKemamdur vs.ha sandhi== ▼English has a no longer [[productivity (linguistics)|productive]] process of voicing stem-final fricatives, which is encountered both in noun-verb pairs and in the formation of [[English plural|plural]] nouns.
*belie'''f''' - belie'''v'''e
*li'''f'''e - li'''v'''e
*proo'''f''' - pro'''v'''e
*stri'''f'''e - stri'''v'''e
*thie'''f''' - thie'''v'''e
*ba{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - ba{{IPA|['''ð''']}}e
*brea{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - brea{{IPA|['''ð''']}}e
*mou{{IPA|['''θ''']}} (n.) - mou{{IPA|['''ð''']}} (vb.)
*shea{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - shea{{IPA|['''ð''']}}e
*wrea{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - wrea{{IPA|['''ð''']}}e
*choi{{IPA|['''s''']}}e - choo{{IPA|['''z''']}}e
*hou{{IPA|['''s''']}}e (n.) - hou{{IPA|['''z''']}}e (vb.)
*u{{IPA|['''s''']}}e (n.) - u{{IPA|['''z''']}}e (vb.)
The voicing alternation found in plural formation is losing ground in the modern language, and of the alternations listed below many speakers retain only the [f-v] pattern, which is supported by the [[orthography]].
*kni'''f'''e - kni'''v'''es
*lea'''f''' - lea'''v'''es
*sel'''f''' - sel'''v'''es
*shel'''f''' - shel'''v'''es
*whar'''f''' - whar'''v'''es
*wi'''f'''e - wi'''v'''es
*wol'''f''' - wol'''v'''es
*ba{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - ba{{IPA|['''ð''']}}s
*mou{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - mou{{IPA|['''ð''']}}s
*oa{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - oa{{IPA|['''ð''']}}s
*pa{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - pa{{IPA|['''ð''']}}s
*you{{IPA|['''θ''']}} - you{{IPA|['''ð''']}}s
*hou{{IPA|['''s''']}}e - hou{{IPA|['''z''']}}es
==Fula==
The Gombe dialect of [[Fula language|Fula]], spoken in [[Nigeria]], shows mutation triggered by [[declension]] class.<ref>{{cite book|last=Arnott|first=D. W.|title=The Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1970}}</ref> The mutation grades are [[Fortition]] and [[Prenasalized consonant|Prenasalization]]:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;"
! Radical !! Fortition !! Prenasalization
|-
| f || p || p
|-
| s || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʃ}}
|-
| h || k || k
|-
| w || b || mb
|-
| r || d || nd
|-
| j || {{IPA|dʒ}}, g || {{IPA|ɲdʒ}}, ŋg
|-
| {{IPA|ɣ}} || g || ŋg
|}
For example, the stems '''rim-''' 'free man' and '''{{IPA|[ɣim-]}}''' 'person' have the following forms:
*{{IPA|['''r'''imɓe]}} (class 2), '''d'''imo (class 1), '''nd'''imon (class 6)
*{{IPA|['''ɣ'''imɓe]}} (class 2), '''g'''imɗo (class 1), '''ŋg'''imkon (class 6)
==Indonesian/Malay==
The active form of a multisyllabic verb with an initial [[stop consonant]] or [[fricative consonant]] is formed by prefixing the verb stem with ''meN-'', in which ''N'' stands for a [[nasal consonant]] sharing the [[place of articulation]] as the initial consonant.
*garuk → me'''ng'''garuk (= to scratch), hitung → me'''ng'''hitung (= to count),
*beri → me'''m'''beri (= to give), fitnah → me'''m'''fitnah (= to falsely accuse),
*cari → me'''n'''cari (= to search), dapat → me'''n'''dapat (= to obtain), *jangkau → me'''n'''jangkau (= to reach)
If the initial consonant is an unvoiced stop or s, it disappears, leaving only the nasal in its place.
*'''k'''andung → me'''ng'''andung (= to contain or to be pregnant),
*'''p'''utih → me'''m'''utih (= to turn white),
*'''s'''atu → me'''ny'''atu (= to become one / to unite),
*'''t'''ulis → me'''n'''ulis (= to write).
Applied to verbs starting with a vowel, the nasal consonant is realized as ''ng'' {{IPA|([ŋ])}}.
Monosyllabic verbs add an [[epenthetic vowel]] before prefixing, producing the prefix ''menge-''.
*bor (= boring tool / drill) → me'''nge'''bor (= to make a hole with drill).
Verbs starting with a nasal or [[approximant consonant]] do not add the mutant nasal at all, just ''me-''.<ref>Examples adapted from [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Indonesian_prefix_me Wikibooks:Indonesian_prefix_me]</ref>
Initial consonant mutation must not be confused with [[sandhi]], which can refer to word-initial alternations triggered by their [[phonology|phonological]] environment, unlike mutations, which are triggered by their morphosyntactic environment. Some examples of word-initial sandhi are listed below.
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]: [b, d, g], occurring after [[nasal consonant]]s and pause, alternate with {{IPA|[β, ð, ɣ]}}, occurring after [[vowel]]s and [[liquid consonant]]s. Example: un ['''b''']arco 'a boat', mi ['''β''']arco 'my boat'.
*Scottish Gaelic: stops in stressed syllables are voiced after nasals, e.g. ['''kʰ'''aht] 'a cat', {{IPA|[əŋ}} '''g'''aht] 'the cat'.
*[[Nivkh language|Nivkh]]: stops become fricatives after vowels, and fricatives become stops after other fricatives.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Blevins|first=Juliette|title=Gilyak lenition as a phonological rule|journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics|volume=13|year=1993|pages=1–21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gruzdeva |first=Ekaterina |title=Aspects of Nivkh morphophonology: initial consonant alternation after sonants |journal=[[Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne]] |volume=87 |year=1997 |pages=79–96}}</ref> Examples:
**{{IPA|['''qʰ'''os]}} 'neck', {{IPA|[cʰolŋi '''χ'''os]}} 'neck of a reindeer'
**{{IPA|['''χ'''a-]}} 'shoot', {{IPA|[cʰxəf '''qʰ'''a-]}} 'to shoot a bear'
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